India -China Border Conundrum; the McMahon Line!!

Jagmohan Sharma

It was 20th of October 1962 when the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) literally rolled down over the Thangla Ridge (16,900 ft) on the NEFA frontier (presently Arunachal Pradesh) into India. This was after a sustained build up by the Chinese over time. To quote Chairman Mao of China, this was to “teach India a lesson” for its “transgression” on the “border” between the two countries. It is believed that around 600 soldiers of the Indian Army, completely unprepared,clothed in summer uniform, poorly fed, poorly supplied, low on arms and ammunition and other military tools and tackles, with no place to take shelter in, were pitted against a well-entrenched, fully motivated and trained, strategically deployed Chinese Army with a strength of around 20,000 soldiers. Chinese had established strategic depth and fully sustainable supply lines through Tibet to fall back upon. China had “annexed” Tibet in 1950. Slowly and steadily, it had tightened its stranglehold on this territory.
Our troops in the battlefront were “outnumbered and out weaponed.” Instead of making good the shortcomings communicated incessantly to Army Head Quarter, Defense Ministry and to the Government of India by the Army Officers on the frontline, the slogan of “moving on hard scales and pouch ammunition” was coined. The requirements and assessments of the situation on the border by the senior field officers of the army were thrown into the dustbin.
Our ill-prepared troops engaged the Chinese in battles at the heights of 15,000 and 16,000 feet and that too during the chilly months of October and November and further plummeting temperatures. In-spite of shortcomings, our forces fought well. However, wars are not won by the valour of individual units/soldiers but by the “whole of government approach.” This approach, unfortunately, was missing in 1962.
The Chinese claimed that Indian soldiers had intruded into their territory and established their posts. So did the Indian Government about the Chinese intrusion into our area. Which was true and false – both!!
“It was true and false – both” as no one really knew where the Indian territory ended and where the Chinese territory began (or vice versa). There was a “perception” of borders, bordering on a situation of flux that was a sure recipe for conflict.
The fact remains that the borders along the Himalayas were “loosely defined or loosely marked on maps” between India and Tibet through treaties amongst many actors throughout the history. It was Tibet that was our neighbour in the north, beyond the “impregnable” Himalayas and not China.
The boundaries that were bequeathed to independent India in 1947 by the outgoing British Empire may have addressed the commercial and security requirements of British India, but these “hazy borders”eventually put the security of India at risk.
McMahon Line defined the border in north-east between British India and Tibet while the border in the western Himalayas was broadly defined by the Chushul Treaty signed between the Dogra Ruler of Jammu, Raja Gulab Singh (under suzerainty of Sikh Empire) and the Tibetan government in September 1842. After the treaty of Amritsar on March 16, 1846, when Kashmir came under the Dogra rule (after collapse of Sikh Empire) the British tried to demarcate borders between JandK and Tibet and China.
The borders, mostly uninhibited, were defined using such vague terms as “based on the history, traditions and historical usage.” This writeup is about the McMahon Line and as such the western Himalayan borders are not discussed.
Tibet was autonomous or independent depending upon the strength of the central authority in China. If China was strong, they exercised suzerainty over Tibet and if not, Tibet was independent. In that sense Tibet was “independent” on the 15th of August 1947 (since 1912) as the central government in Bejing couldn’t exercise its authority far and beyond. China was in the grip of a deadly civil war. CCP under Mao Zedung, was consolidating its position and the Nationalist Party was facing reverses. Mao’s objectives were very clear. He went ahead consolidating his power in China internally while not losing sight of its external borders. For him a secure China meant a secure nation that was secure internally andalso capable of defendingits well-defined borders.
During this period India was also in the process of consolidating its territories. Under the stewardship of Sardar Patel India integrated more than 565 princely states into the newly emerging Indian Union. However, India failed to take note of the events unfolding in the neighbouring China. Going by the documents in the public domain it seems that the external borders of India were taken for a given by the Indian government because of the existing treaties with various stakeholders. Prime Minister, Jawahar Lal Nehru, believed that China would adhere to these treaties. His belief proved to be misplaced after China annexed Tibet in 1950.
Coming back to McMahon Line, the border between the two nations in the Indian north-east!
The McMahon line separating India & China in the north-east has a story that is seeded in history. Presently thisis the Line of Actual Control (LAC) between the two nations. China does not recognize this line as a border.
In 1911/12 the rebellion against the ruling Quing dynasty of China resulted in the abdication of the emperor. Consequent uncertainties led to the Chinese revolution and steady consolidation of power under Mao Zedung. The People’s Republic of China (PRC) emerged on the world scene on 01.10.1949. It was announced by Mao Zedung at Tiananmen Square, in Beijing, marking the end of civil war between the CCP and the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT).
Since inception of PRC in 1949 Mao Zedong and other Chinese leaders made their intentions very clear regarding incorporation of Tibet into China. Though Tibet was literally independent since 1912 with its own passport, currency and foreign policy but the new dispensation of China fell back upon the “historical relationship” between the two territories and declared national sovereignty over Tibet. On 07.10.1950 the Chinese army invaded Tibet and captured the city of Chamdo, on the main trade route between Sichuan province and Lhasa, thus building up pressure on Tibet to accept their demand. On May 23rd, 1951, after signing a 17-point agreement with Tibet was incorporated into China.
Thereafter it was China that became India’s neighbour and Tibet, as a buffer state between India and China,ceased to exist!
Here I must refer to Gen. JJ Singh, former Chief of the Indian Army, for his seminal work “The McMohan Line, A Century of Discord.” This is a book that goes into minutest details of the “evolution of the McMahon Line” between India and Chinaand makes for an informative and captivating read.
It was British India that sought to demarcate the boundaries between Tibet and China and Tibet and North-Eastern Parts of India and Burma (now Myanmar). As already mentioned, historically, the relationship between China and Tibet was always fluctuating and the Russians, Chinese and the British were always suspicious of each other’s intentions with respect to Tibet.
One of the clauses in Anglo – Tibet treaty of 7th September 1904 after Young husband’s expedition to Lhasa sought to create an impression that Tibet was to become a protectorate of the British Empire. Young husband had marched into Lhasa to demonstrate the power of the British Empire to the “recalcitrant Dalai Lama” (who escaped to Mongolia)and to ensure that he did not come under the influence of the “expansionist” Russia.This was the time when Chinese felt too weak to halt the onslaught of Young husband. Though the Chinese Amban did not sign the treaty, but he facilitated its signing in the Potala palace.
The Chinese policy makers were overawed and shocked by the “blitzkrieg of Young husband” into Tibet. Therefore, they concluded that they must deploy their forces to control the outlying regions of Yunnan and Sichuanprovinces enabling them tohave their say in Lhasa too. For this purpose, they appointed Chao Erh-feng as commissioner of the territories mentioned above. He opened the roads linking Sichuan and Yunnan with Lhasa. The commissioner, thougha great strategist was very ruthless and thus gained the acronym of a “butcher”for his atrocious behaviour. However, he changed the “political landscape of Eastern Tibet from 1906 – 1911″in favour of China.” During this period and especially during 1910-11 the British were alarmed when they noticed Chinese presence in Tsangpo Valley and in the southern slopes of Himalayan tribal territories. British considered the presence of Chinese in these areas as a threat to their prosperous tea estates and oil fieldsin Assam.
These reports coupled with the uncertainties arising out of the October 1911 eventsin China made the British to see an opportunity for settlement of boundaries between Tibet and China as also between Tibet, India and Burma (now Myanmar). It was a herculean task not only because of the politics involved but also as it meant that the hitherto uncharted and difficult north-easters Indian terrain would have to be fully mapped in a very short time.
Discussions on settlement of boundaries commenced on 13th October 1913 when the committee of Lonchen Shatra representing Tibet, Ivan Chen from China and AH McMahon from British India met for the first time in Simla. McMahon was elected as the president for the deliberations. The committee held its meetings in Simla and Delhi and after a lot of wrangling, shuttling and shuffling over points and counterpoints, concessions and steadfastness or simple brazenness of one participant or the other coupled with threats of leaving the conference midway as well as consultation with the respective governments a conclusion was drawn where the boundaries between China and Tibet and those between Tibet and India and Burma were agreed to and marked on a map.
The negotiations involved a lot of give and take especially between Tibet and China where Tibetans conceded several of Chinese demands with the purpose of clinching the issue.The Chinese proved to be very tough negotiators and displayed intransigent attitude all through the meetings. It is also recorded that the Tibetan representative and his team was meticulous with their records and documentation while the Chinese representative was always evasive and not forthcoming.
The committee under McMahon came up with the concept of “Outer Tibet”&”Inner Tibet.”Outer Tibet was envisaged to be “fully autonomous and under temporal and spiritual control of the Dalai Lama, with minimum presence of the Chinese, although it would remain under the suzerainty of the Chinese” while as the Dalai Lama was to have a limited power in the “Inner Tibet.” The line demarcating “Inner Tibet” from China on map was further extended to demarcate the border between Tibet and Burma and India. This extended line came to be known as McMahon Line.
On 27th of April 1914, after a lot of hassle and pushing the “concurrence of all three representatives of the committee were obtained on the (Simla) convention and the attached maps”. The India – Tibet border (McMahon Line) was also delineated on a “small scale map” and became an important part of the Simlaconvention.
However, the joy of closing the convention successfully after a string of gruelingmeetings between 13th October 1913 and 27th April 1914 in Delhi and Simlawas short lived as on the 29th of April 1914 the Chinese representative informed the committee that the “Chinese government had repudiated the signing of the convention. “McMahon continued to expect that the Chinese would change their mind especially in view of the territorial and political concessions granted to them at the cost of the Tibetans. Finding no response from the Chinese the conference was concluded on 3rd July 1914 with the “British and Tibetan representatives proceeding to initial and seal the convention”. The Chinese representative attended the ceremony but made it known that “the Chinese government would not recognize any treaty or similar document that might now or hereafter be signed between Great Britian and Tibet”. This was probably the last time when the Chinese and Tibetans sat as equals on a negotiating table.
As per Gen. JJ Singh, within a month of signing this agreement “first world war was unleashed on the world, and it overshadowed all matters otherwise engaging the attention of the world powers – Tibet being one of them”. But the impact of this agreement should not be lost on anyone as this, as concluded by General Singh, is the biggest service by McMahon to independent India as this boundary has a worldwide recognition and has proved to be a big boon to Indiaduring negotiation of border issues with China.

 

It is across this line that Indian and Chinese forces clashed in 1962. The trigger was the ill-conceived forward policy of Nehru which literally envisaged establishment of forward posts in areas that were unoccupied on the border and wait for Chinese response, if any, to these movements. Nehru believed that the Chinese would not take any big action, and confrontation might be limited to small and manageable skirmishes.
Nehru was compelled to adopt “forward policy” as a face saver under public pressure as it dawned on Indians around 1957 that the Chinese had built a road connecting Tibet toSinkiang province of China through the Indian territory of Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir. Though construction of the road was started by the Chinese in 1951 but it came to the notice of the Indian Government only when it was completed and announced to the world by the Chinese Govt. in 1957. When Indian CRPF patrols went to see the situation for themselvesin 1959, they were fired upon by the Chinese resulting in killing of 9 soldiers and detention of threeby them. This complled Nehru to announce occupation of Aksai Chin by the Chinese.
It was a unique situation where on the one hand Nehru was busy with “Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai” slogan, but the Chinese were playing a deceptive game of friendship plus animosity simultaneously. They annexed Tibet in ……. thereby posing military threat along the northern borders of the country. While Nehru signed “Panchsheel Agreement” with China on 29th April 1954 thereby recognizing Chinese annexation of Tibet but got no guarantees on border in return.
The army officers on the frontier and in the chain of command were not in agreement with Nehru’s forward policy because of shortcomings in military preparedness but Nehru and Krishana Menon (defense minister) would not listen to them. General PN Thapar, the then army chief, couldn’t convince the political leadership of the deficiencies being faced by the Army. General BM Kaul, the Nehru protegee, who could probably have made a difference with Nehru did not do it. Those in the army who could see writing on the wall were either superseded and thus resigned or were retired prematurely.
The Chinese had reached the outskirts of Tezpur in Assam. On the 21st November 1962 the Chinese declared a ceasefire and announced their intention to go back 20 km behind the McMahon Line. By that time the Twang Brigade of the Indian Army was completely decimated. On the Ladakh front the Chinese consolidated their position in Aksai Chin.
The officially undeclared Indo – China war of 1962 continues to be a scar on the story of independent India. It has less to do with the failure of the army but more to do with the failure of the political leadership of the time. It must be remembered that the troops deployed along the McMahon Line in 1962 had won laurels in various sectors of the war during World War -2.
The recent signs of thaw in Indo – Chinese relations and the visit of the Chinese Foreign Minister and Special Representatives on the India – China boundary question to India in mid-August 2025 rekindles hope, however faint, of settlement of border issues between India and China sometime in the future.Settlement of border issue between India and China from north-east to the western Himalayas, while taking people into confidence,will be a great tribute to the governments of both the countries. It shouldn’t be forgotten that India and China are both civilizational states with a lot that is common between them; culturally, socially and historically. Settlement of border issues between the two countries will catalyze the prosperity of the people on both sides of the border.
Today it is quite possible as India today has travelled a long distance since 1962!!

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